Biological Indicators of Ionizing Radiation in Nature

Ionizing radiation that consists of α, β and γ rays can directly damage DNA and other molecules and as such result in somatic or germline mutations. The consequences of ionizing radiation for living beings cannot be measured with a Geiger counter because it will depend on external dose, internal dose, and the extent of DNA repair. In addition it will depend on the environmental conditions under which living organisms exist. We list environmental indicators of ionizing condition that reveal immediate and long-term consequences ranging from changes in DNA, over damaged cells and organs to altered gene function and development, reduced fecundity and survival, and hence to negative population trends, and altered communities and ecosystems and perturbed ecosystem functioning. We test for consistency in biological indicator ability across spatial and temporal scales relying on long-term field data collected at Chernobyl and Fukushima, and we test for consistency in indicator ability among indicators. Finally, we address the direct and indirect effects of ionizing radiation and we discuss the species or taxa most susceptible to the effects of radiation.